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1. Recent Progresses in Electrocatalysts for Water Electrolysis

Muhammad Arif Khan, Hongbin Zhao, Wenwen Zou, Zhe Chen, Wenjuan Cao, Jianhui Fang, Jiaqiang Xu, Lei Zhang, Jiujun Zhang

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2018, 1 (4): 483-530. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-018-0014-z

摘要（18751）

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The study of hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction electrocatalysts for water electrolysis is a developing feld in which noble metal-based materials are commonly used. However, the associated high cost and low abundance of noble metals limit their practical application. Non-noble metal catalysts, aside from being inexpensive, highly abundant and environmental friendly, can possess high electrical conductivity, good structural tunability and comparable electrocatalytic performances to state-of-the-art noble metals, particularly in alkaline media, making them desirable candidates to reduce or replace noble metals as promising electrocatalysts for water electrolysis. This article will review and provide an overview of the fundamental knowledge related to water electrolysis with a focus on the development and progress of non-noble metal-based electrocatalysts in alkaline, polymer exchange membrane and solid oxide electrolysis. A critical analysis of the various catalysts currently available is also provided with discussions on current challenges and future perspectives. In addition, to facilitate future research and development, several possible research directions to overcome these challenges are provided in this article.

Full-text：https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41918-018-0014-z

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2. Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) and MOF-Derived Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion

Xu Zhang, An Chen, Ming Zhong, Zihe Zhang, Xin Zhang, Zhen Zhou, Xian-He Bu

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2019, 2 (1): 29-104. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-018-0024-x

摘要（1121）

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As modern society develops, the need for clean energy becomes increasingly important on a global scale. Because of this, the exploration of novel materials for energy storage and utilization is urgently needed to achieve low-carbon economy and sustainable development. Among these novel materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), a class of porous materials, have gained increasing attention for utilization in energy storage and conversion systems because of ultra-high surface areas, controllable structures, large pore volumes and tunable porosities. In addition to pristine MOFs, MOF derivatives such as porous carbons and nanostructured metal oxides can also exhibit promising performances in energy storage and conversion applications. In this review, the latest progress and breakthrough in the application of MOF and MOF-derived materials for energy storage and conversion devices are summarized, including Li-based batteries (Li-ion, Li-S and Li-O₂ batteries), Na-ion batteries, supercapacitors, solar cells and fuel cells.

Full-text：https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41918-018-0024-x

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3. Carbon-Encapsulated Electrocatalysts for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Jiajia Lu, Shibin Yin, Pei Kang Shen

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2019, 2 (1): 105-127. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-018-0025-9

摘要（741）

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Water electrolysis is a promising approach for large-scale and sustainable hydrogen production; however, its kinetics is slow and requires precious metal electrocatalysts to efciently operate. Therefore, great eforts are being undertaken to design and prepare low-cost and highly efcient electrocatalysts to boost the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). This is because traditional transition-metal electrocatalysts and corresponding hybrids with nonmetal atoms rely mainly on the interaction of metal-H bonds for the HER, which inevitably sufers from corrosion in extreme acidic and alkaline solutions. And as a result of all this efort, novel nanostructured electrocatalysts, such as carbon-encapsulated precious metals and non-precious metals including single metals or their alloys, transition-metal carbides, phosphides, oxides, sulfdes, and selenides have all been recently reported to exhibit good catalytic activities and stabilities for hydrogen evolution. Here, the catalytic activity is thought to originate from the electron penetration efect of the inner metals to the surface carbon, which can alter the Gibbs free energy of hydrogen adsorption on the surface of materials. In this review, recent progresses of carbon-encapsulated materials for the HER are summarized, with a focus on the unique efects of carbon shells. In addition, perspectives on the future development of carbon-coated electrocatalysts for the HER are provided.

Full-text：https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41918-018-0025-9

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4. The Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction in Alkaline Medium: An Overview

Carlos Augusto Campos-Roldán, Nicolas Alonso-Vante

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2019, 2 (2): 312-331. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-019-00034-6

摘要（971）

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The recent advances in electrocatalysis for the hydrogen evolution reactions in acid and alkaline media are carefully reviewed. In this sense, this short review focuses on precious and non-precious catalytic centers. The recent development of HOR electrocatalysts with novel structures and compositions is highlighted. The understandings of the correlation between the activity and the shape, size, composition, and synthesis methods are summarized. The research directions, e.g., on the further development of more active, more stable, and less expensive electrocatalysts for the anion-exchange membranes for the alkaline fuel cell technology are provided. In this context, positive perspectives to overcome the high kinetic barriers encountered in alkaline medium can be expected in the years to come.

Full-text：https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41918-019-00034-6/fulltext.html

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5. Non-noble Metal Electrocatalysts for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in Water Electrolysis

Huimin Wu, Chuanqi Feng, Lei Zhang, Jiujun Zhang, David P. Wilkinson

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2021, 4 (3): 473-507. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-020-00086-z

摘要（496）

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Water electrolysis is a sustainable approach for hydrogen production by using electricity from clean energy sources. However, both the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) associated with water electrolysis are kinetically sluggish, leading to low efficiency in corresponding electrolysis devices. In addition, current electrocatalysts that can catalyze both HER and OER to practical rates require noble metals such as platinum that are low in abundance and high in price, severely limiting commercialization. As a result, the development of high-performance and cost-effective non-noble metal electrocatalysts to replace noble ones has intensified. Based on this, this review will comprehensively present recent research in the design, synthesis, characterization and performance validation/optimization of non-noble metal HER electrocatalysts and analyze corresponding catalytic mechanisms. Moreover, several important types of non-noble metal electrocatalysts including zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional materials are presented with an emphasis on morphology/structure, synergetic interaction between metal and support, catalytic property and HER activity/stability. Furthermore, existing technical challenges are summarized and corresponding research directions are proposed toward practical application.Water electrolysis is a sustainable approach for hydrogen production by using electricity from clean energy sources. However, both the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are kinetically sluggish, causing low efficiency of the electrolysis devices. The currently used noble metals, such as Pt-based electrocatalysts for catalyzing both HER and OER to practical rates, have low abundances and high price, limiting their commercialization. In this regard, developing high-performance and cost-effective non-noble metal electrocatalysts to replace noble ones has become a hot research topic.

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6. Solid Oxide Electrolysis of H₂O and CO₂ to Produce Hydrogen and Low-Carbon Fuels

Yun Zheng, Zhongwei Chen, Jiujun Zhang

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2021, 4 (3): 508-517. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-021-00097-4

摘要（542）

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Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) including the oxygen ion-conducting SOEC (O-SOEC) and the proton-conducting SOEC (H-SOEC) have been actively investigated as next-generation electrolysis technologies that can provide high-energy conversion efficiencies for H₂O and CO₂ electrolysis to sustainably produce hydrogen and low-carbon fuels, thus providing higher-temperature routes for energy storage and conversion. Current research has also focused on the promotion of SOEC critical components to accelerate wider practical implementation. Based on these investigations, this perspective will summarize the most recent progress in the optimization of electrolysis performance and long-term stability of SOECs, with an emphasis on material developments, technological approaches and improving strategies, such as nano-composing, surface/interface engineering, doping and in situ exsolution. Existing technical challenges are also analyzed, and future research directions are proposed to achieve SOEC technical maturity and economic feasibility for diverse conversion applications.Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs), including oxygen ion-conducting SOEC (O-SOEC) and proton-conducting SOEC (H-SOEC), have been actively investigated as one type of next generation electrolysis technologies with high-energy conversion efficiencies, which provide higher-temperature routes for energy storage and conversion.

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7. Recent Advances in the Understanding of the Surface Reconstruction of Oxygen Evolution Electrocatalysts and Materials Development

Junwei Chen, Haixin Chen, Tongwen Yu, Ruchun Li, Yi Wang, Zongping Shao, Shuqin Song

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2021, 4 (3): 566-600. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-021-00104-8

摘要（534）

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The electrochemical oxygen evolution reaction (OER) plays an important role in many clean electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems, such as electrochemical water splitting, rechargeable metal-air batteries, and electrochemical CO₂ reduction. However, the OER involves a complex four-electron process and suffers from intrinsically sluggish kinetics, which greatly impairs the efficiency of electrochemical systems. In addition, state-of-the-art RuO₂-based OER electrocatalysts are too expensive and scarce for practical applications. The development of highly active, cost-effective, and durable electrocatalysts that can improve OER performance (activity and durability) is of significant importance in realizing the widespread application of these advanced technologies. To date, considerable progress has been made in the development of alternative, noble metal-free OER electrocatalysts. Among these alternative catalysts, transition metal compounds have received particular attention and have shown activities comparable to or even higher than those of their precious metal counterparts. In contrast to many other electrocatalysts, such as carbon-based materials, transition metal compounds often exhibit a surface reconstruction phenomenon that is accompanied by the transformation of valence states during electrochemical OER processes. This surface reconstruction results in changes to the true active sites and an improvement or reduction in OER catalytic performance. Therefore, understanding the self-reconstruction process and precisely identifying the true active sites on electrocatalyst surfaces will help us to finely tune the properties and activities of OER catalysts. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent progress made in understanding the surface reconstruction phenomena of various transition metal-based OER electrocatalysts, focusing on uncovering the correlations among structure, surface reconstruction and intrinsic activity. Recent advances in OER electrocatalysts that exhibit a surface self-reconstruction capability are also discussed. We identify possible challenges and perspectives for the development of OER electrocatalysts based on surface reconstruction. We hope this review will provide readers with some guidance on the rational design of catalysts for various electrochemical reactions.

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8. Photochemical Systems for Solar-to-Fuel Production

Ya Liu, Feng Wang, Zihao Jiao, Shengjie Bai, Haoran Qiu, Liejin Guo

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2022, 5 (3): 5-. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00132-y

摘要（1879）

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The photochemical system, which utilizes only solar energy and H₂O/CO₂ to produce hydrogen/carbon-based fuels, is considered a promising approach to reduce CO₂ emissions and achieve the goal of carbon neutrality. To date, numerous photochemical systems have been developed to obtain a viable solar-to-fuel production system with sufficient energy efficiency. However, more effort is still needed to meet the requirements of industrial implementation. In this review, we systematically discuss a typical photochemical system for solar-to-fuel production, from classical theories and fundamental mechanisms to raw material selection, reaction condition optimization, and unit device/system advancement, from the viewpoint of ordered energy conversion. State-of-the-art photochemical systems, including photocatalytic, photovoltaic-electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, solar thermochemical, and other emerging systems, are summarized. We highlight the existing bottlenecks and discuss the developing trend of this technology. Finally, optimization strategies and new opportunities are proposed to enhance photochemical systems with higher energy efficiency.

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9. Innovative Strategies for Overall Water Splitting Using Nanostructured Transition Metal Electrocatalysts

Asad Ali, Fei Long, Pei Kang Shen

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2022, 5 (4): 1-. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00136-8

摘要（2304）

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Electrochemical water splitting is regarded as the most auspicious technology for renewable sources, transport, and storage of hydrogen energy. Currently, noble Pt metal and noble-metal oxides (IrO₂ and RuO₂) are recognized as state-of-the-art electrocatalysts for both the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER), respectively. Searching for earth-abundant electrocatalysts for the HER and OER with remarkable performance and high stability to replace precious metals plays a significant role in the commercial application of electrochemical water splitting. In this review, recent advancements in nanostructured transition metal electrocatalysts are assessed through the selected examples of nitrides, carbides, phosphides, sulfides, borides, layered double hydroxides, and oxides. Recent breakthroughs in nanostructured transition metal electrocatalysts are discussed in terms of their mechanisms, controllable production, structural design, and innovative strategies for boosting their performance. For instance, most nanostructured transition metal electrocatalysts for overall water splitting (OWS) only function well in neutral and alkaline solutions. Finally, current research challenges and future perspectives for increasing the performance of nanostructured transition metals for OWS are proposed.

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10. Atom Doping Engineering of Transition Metal Phosphides for Hydrogen Evolution Reactions

Huawei Bai, Ding Chen, Qianli Ma, Rui Qin, Hanwen Xu, Yufeng Zhao, Junxin Chen, Shichun Mu

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2022, 5 (S2): 24-. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00161-7

摘要（347）

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Transition metal phosphides (TMPs) have attracted attention in electrocatalytic hydrogen production because of their multiple active sites, adjustable structures, complex and variable composition, and distinctive electronic structures. However, the catalytic performance of pure TMPs in the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is not ideal. Fortunately, this situation can be changed by atom doping engineering because atom doping can efficaciously adjust the electronic structure, Gibbs free energy (ΔG_H*) and d-band center to enhance the kinetics of catalytic reactions. Thus, atom doping engineering has aroused widespread interest. This review examines, analyzes and summarizes our previous work and that of others on atom doping engineering, including the activity origin of doped TMPs, doping with nonmetals (B, S, N, O, F, etc.), doping with metals (Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Mo, Al, etc.) and codoping with nonmetals and metal atoms, as well as direct doping and synergetic doping, doping methods and the resulting HER properties. Finally, the key problems and future directions for development of atom doping in TMPs are discussed. This review will aid the design and construction of high-performance nonnoble metal catalysts for the HER and other electrocatalytic processes.

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11. Recent Advancements in Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production

Yibo Zhao, Zhenjie Niu, Jiwu Zhao, Lan Xue, Xianzhi Fu, Jinlin Long

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2023, 6 (2): 14-. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00153-7

摘要（915）

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Sunlight is the most abundant and inexhaustible energy source on earth. However, its low energy density, dispersibility and intermittent nature make its direct utilization with industrial relevance challenging, suggesting that converting sunlight into chemical energy and storing it is a valuable measure to achieve global sustainable development. Carbon–neutral, clean and secondary pollution-free solar-driven water splitting to produce hydrogen is one of the most attractive avenues among all the current options and is expected to realize the transformation from dependence on fossil fuels to zero-pollution hydrogen. Artificial photosynthetic systems (APSs) based on photoelectrochemical (PEC) devices appear to be an ideal avenue to efficiently achieve solar-to-hydrogen conversion. In this review, we comprehensively highlight the recent developments in photocathodes, including architectures, semiconductor photoabsorbers and performance optimization strategies. In particular, frontier research cases of organic semiconductors, dye sensitization and surface grafted molecular catalysts applied to APSs based on frontier (molecular) orbital theory and semiconductor energy band theory are discussed. Moreover, research advances in typical photoelectrodes with the metal–insulator–semiconductor (MIS) architecture based on quantum tunnelling are also introduced. Finally, we discuss the benchmarks and protocols for designing integrated tandem photoelectrodes and PEC systems that conform to the solar spectrum to achieve high-efficiency and cost-effective solar-to-hydrogen conversion at an industrial scale in the near future.

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12. Recent Advances in High-Efficiency Electrocatalytic Water Splitting Systems

Xian-Wei Lv, Wen-Wen Tian, Zhong-Yong Yuan

Electrochemical Energy Reviews 2023, 6 (3): 23-. DOI: 10.1007/s41918-022-00159-1

摘要（342）

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Electrocatalytic water splitting driven by renewable energy input to produce clean hydrogen (H₂) has been widely considered a prospective approach for a future hydrogen-based society. However, the development of industrial alkaline water electrolyzers is hindered due to their unfavorable thermodynamics with high overpotential for delivering the whole process, caused by sluggish kinetics involving four-electron transfer. Further exploration of water electrolysis with low energy consumption and high efficiency is urgently required to meet the ever-growing energy storage and portfolio demands. This review emphasizes the strategies proposed thus far to pursue high-efficiency water electrolysis systems, including from the aspects of electrocatalysts (from monofunctional to bifunctional), electrode engineering (from powdery to self-supported), energy sources (from nonrenewable to renewable), electrolytes (from pure to hybrid), and cell configurations (from integrated to decoupled). Critical appraisals of the pivotal electrochemistry are highlighted to address the challenges in elevating the overall efficiency of water splitting. Finally, valuable insights for the future development directions and bottlenecks of advanced, sustainable, and high-efficiency water splitting systems are outlined.

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