Electrochemical Energy Reviews

Lead-Carbon Batteries toward Future Energy Storage: From Mechanism and Materials to Applications

Jian Yin, Haibo Lin, Jun Shi, Zheqi Lin, Jinpeng Bao, Yue Wang, Xuliang Lin, Yanlin Qin, Xueqing Qiu, Wenli Zhang

2022, 5(3): 2. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00134-w

摘要 ( 1828 )

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The lead acid battery has been a dominant device in large-scale energy storage systems since its invention in 1859. It has been the most successful commercialized aqueous electrochemical energy storage system ever since. In addition, this type of battery has witnessed the emergence and development of modern electricity-powered society. Nevertheless, lead acid batteries have technologically evolved since their invention. Over the past two decades, engineers and scientists have been exploring the applications of lead acid batteries in emerging devices such as hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage; these applications necessitate operation under partial state of charge. Considerable endeavors have been devoted to the development of advanced carbon-enhanced lead acid battery (i.e., lead-carbon battery) technologies. Achievements have been made in developing advanced lead-carbon negative electrodes. Additionally, there has been significant progress in developing commercially available lead-carbon battery products. Therefore, exploring a durable, long-life, corrosion-resistive lead dioxide positive electrode is of significance. In this review, the possible design strategies for advanced maintenance-free lead-carbon batteries and new rechargeable battery configurations based on lead acid battery technology are critically reviewed. Moreover, a synopsis of the lead-carbon battery is provided from the mechanism, additive manufacturing, electrode fabrication, and full cell evaluation to practical applications.

Air Stability of Solid-State Sulfide Batteries and Electrolytes

Pushun Lu, Dengxu Wu, Liquan Chen, Hong Li, Fan Wu

2022, 5(3): 3. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00149-3

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Sulfides have been widely acknowledged as one of the most promising solid electrolytes (SEs) for all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) due to their superior ionic conductivity and favourable mechanical properties. However, the extremely poor air stability of sulfide SEs leads to destroyed structure/performance and release of toxic H2S gas, which greatly limits mass-production/practical application of sulfide SEs and ASSBs. This review is designed to serve as an all-inclusive handbook for studying this critical issue. First, the research history and milestone breakthroughs of this field are reviewed, and this is followed by an in-depth elaboration of the theoretical paradigms that have been developed thus far, including the random network theory of glasses, hard and soft acids and bases (HSAB) theory, thermodynamic analysis and kinetics of interfacial reactions. Moreover, the characterization of air stability is reviewed from the perspectives of H₂S generation, morphology evolution, mass change, component/structure variations and electrochemical performance. Furthermore, effective strategies for improving the air stabilities of sulfide SEs are highlighted, including H2S absorbents, elemental substitution, design of new materials, surface engineering and sulfide-polymer composite electrolytes. Finally, future research directions are proposed for benign development of air stability for sulfide SEs and ASSBs.

Copper-Based Catalysts for Electrochemical Carbon Dioxide Reduction to Multicarbon Products

Fangfang Chang, Meiling Xiao, Ruifang Miao, Yongpeng Liu, Mengyun Ren, Zhichao Jia, Dandan Han, Yang Yuan, Zhengyu Bai, Lin Yang

2022, 5(3): 4. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00139-5

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Electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide into fuel and chemicals with added value represents an appealing approach to reduce the greenhouse effect and realize a carbon-neutral cycle, which has great potential in mitigating global warming and effectively storing renewable energy. The electrochemical CO₂ reduction reaction (CO₂RR) usually involves multiproton coupling and multielectron transfer in aqueous electrolytes to form multicarbon products (C₂₊ products), but it competes with the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), which results in intrinsically sluggish kinetics and a complex reaction mechanism and places higher requirements on the design of catalysts. In this review, the advantages of electrochemical CO₂ reduction are briefly introduced, and then, different categories of Cu-based catalysts, including monometallic Cu catalysts, bimetallic catalysts, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) along with MOF-derived catalysts and other catalysts, are summarized in terms of their synthesis method and conversion of CO₂ to C₂₊ products in aqueous solution. The catalytic mechanisms of these catalysts are subsequently discussed for rational design of more efficient catalysts. In response to the mechanisms, several material strategies to enhance the catalytic behaviors are proposed, including surface facet engineering, interface engineering, utilization of strong metal-support interactions and surface modification. Based on the above strategies, challenges and prospects are proposed for the future development of CO₂RR catalysts for industrial applications.

Photochemical Systems for Solar-to-Fuel Production

Ya Liu, Feng Wang, Zihao Jiao, Shengjie Bai, Haoran Qiu, Liejin Guo

2022, 5(3): 5. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00132-y

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The photochemical system, which utilizes only solar energy and H₂O/CO₂ to produce hydrogen/carbon-based fuels, is considered a promising approach to reduce CO₂ emissions and achieve the goal of carbon neutrality. To date, numerous photochemical systems have been developed to obtain a viable solar-to-fuel production system with sufficient energy efficiency. However, more effort is still needed to meet the requirements of industrial implementation. In this review, we systematically discuss a typical photochemical system for solar-to-fuel production, from classical theories and fundamental mechanisms to raw material selection, reaction condition optimization, and unit device/system advancement, from the viewpoint of ordered energy conversion. State-of-the-art photochemical systems, including photocatalytic, photovoltaic-electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, solar thermochemical, and other emerging systems, are summarized. We highlight the existing bottlenecks and discuss the developing trend of this technology. Finally, optimization strategies and new opportunities are proposed to enhance photochemical systems with higher energy efficiency.

Rational Design of Atomic Site Catalysts for Electrocatalytic Nitrogen Reduction Reaction: One Step Closer to Optimum Activity and Selectivity

Yiran Ying, Ke Fan, Jinli Qiao, Haitao Huang

2022, 5(3): 6. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00164-4

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The electrocatalytic nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) has been one of the most intriguing catalytic reactions in recent years, providing an energy-saving and environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional Haber-Bosch process for ammonia production. However, the activity and selectivity issues originating from the activation barrier of the NRR intermediates and the competing hydrogen evolution reaction result in the unsatisfactory NH₃ yield rate and Faradaic efficiency of current NRR catalysts. Atomic site catalysts (ASCs), an emerging group of heterogeneous catalysts with a high atomic utilization rate, selectivity, and stability, may provide a solution. This article undertakes an exploration and systematic review of a highly significant research area:the principles of designing ASCs for the NRR. Both the theoretical and experimental progress and state-of-the-art techniques in the rational design of ASCs for the NRR are summarized, and the topic is extended to double-atom catalysts and boron-based metal-free ASCs. This review provides guidelines for the rational design of ASCs for the optimum activity and selectivity for the electrocatalytic NRR.

Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction to Produce Hydrogen Peroxide: Rational Design from Single-Atom Catalysts to Devices

Yueyu Tong, Liqun Wang, Feng Hou, Shi Xue Dou, Ji Liang

2022, 5(3): 7. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00163-5

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Electrocatalytic production of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) via the 2e^- transfer route of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) offers a promising alternative to the energy-intensive anthraquinone process, which dominates current industrial-scale production of H₂O₂. The availability of cost-effective electrocatalysts exhibiting high activity, selectivity, and stability is imperative for the practical deployment of this process. Single-atom catalysts (SACs) featuring the characteristics of both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts are particularly well suited for H₂O₂ synthesis and thus, have been intensively investigated in the last few years. Herein, we present an in-depth review of the current trends for designing SACs for H₂O₂ production via the 2e^- ORR route. We start from the electronic and geometric structures of SACs. Then, strategies for regulating these isolated metal sites and their coordination environments are presented in detail, since these fundamentally determine electrocatalytic performance. Subsequently, correlations between electronic structures and electrocatalytic performance of the materials are discussed. Furthermore, the factors that potentially impact the performance of SACs in H₂O₂ production are summarized. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for rational design of more targeted H₂O₂-producing SACs are highlighted. We hope this review will present the latest developments in this area and shed light on the design of advanced materials for electrochemical energy conversion.

Insight into Cellulose Nanosizing for Advanced Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion: A Review

Wenbin Kang, Li Zeng, Xingang Liu, Hanna He, Xiaolong Li, Wei Zhang, Pooi See Lee, Qi Wang, Chuhong Zhang

2022, 5(3): 8. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00151-9

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Living in a world of heavy industrialization and confronted by the ever-deteriorating environment, the human race is now undertaking serious efforts to reach the target of carbon neutrality. One major step is to promote the development of sustainable electrochemical energy storage and conversion technologies based on green resources instead of the traditional nonreusable petroleum-based technologies. As an almost inexhaustible bioresource, nanocellulose derived from natural biomass exhibits outstanding physiochemical properties that could be well leveraged to bring about numerous opportunities for electrochemical processes. Through structure engineering, nanocellulose with a width of a few tens of nanometers and a length of up to micrometers could be realized. The drastic reduction in dimensions leads to superior mechanical, optical, and functional properties inaccessible to the bulky cellulose counterpart. In this review, different types of nanocellulose with distinctive physiochemical properties and their respective preparation methods are first examined. This is followed by a detailed and insightful analysis of the superiority and unprecedented performance gains that nanocellulose imparts to different electrochemical energy storage and conversion applications as a result of nanosizing. Finally, we humbly put forward our perspectives on the problems regarding current studies as well as on the future research direction for nanocellulose-mediated electrochemical processes to enable practical applications. This review is intended as guidance to initiate cross-disciplinary research effort in this engaging field and help evoke inspiration to effect solutions to critical energy issues of the day.

Advanced Strategies for Stabilizing Single-Atom Catalysts for Energy Storage and Conversion

Wenxian Li, Zehao Guo, Jack Yang, Ying Li, Xueliang Sun, Haiyong He, Sean Li, Jiujun Zhang

2022, 5(3): 9. doi:10.1007/s41918-022-00169-z

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Well-defined atomically dispersed metal catalysts (or single-atom catalysts) have been widely studied to fundamentally understand their catalytic mechanisms, improve the catalytic efficiency, increase the abundance of active components, enhance the catalyst utilization, and develop cost-effective catalysts to effectively reduce the usage of noble metals. Such single-atom catalysts have relatively higher selectivity and catalytic activity with maximum atom utilization due to their unique characteristics of high metal dispersion and a low-coordination environment. However, freestanding single atoms are thermodynamically unstable, such that during synthesis and catalytic reactions, they inevitably tend to agglomerate to reduce the system energy associated with their large surface areas. Therefore, developing innovative strategies to stabilize single-atom catalysts, including mass-separated soft landing, one-pot pyrolysis, co-precipitation, impregnation, atomic layer deposition, and organometallic complexation, is critically needed. Many types of supporting materials, including polymers, have been commonly used to stabilize single atoms in these fabrication techniques. Herein, we review the stabilization strategies of single-atom catalyst, including different synthesis methods, specific metals and carriers, specific catalytic reactions, and their advantages and disadvantages. In particular, this review focuses on the application of polymers in the synthesis and stabilization of single-atom catalysts, including their functions as carriers for metal single atoms, synthetic templates, encapsulation agents, and protection agents during the fabrication process. The technical challenges that are currently faced by single-atom catalysts are summarized, and perspectives related to future research directions including catalytic mechanisms, enhancement of the catalyst loading content, and large-scale implementation are proposed to realize their practical applications.

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