Solid-State Lithium Batteries with Liquid Additives: A Critical Review of Progress and Challenges

  • Xingwen Yu ,
  • Zizhou He ,
  • Zhangsen Chen ,
  • Serdar Yildirim ,
  • Kayla Smith ,
  • James Wu ,
  • Arumugam Manthiram ,
  • Siyi Cao ,
  • Yudong Wang ,
  • Nengneng Xu ,
  • S. Pamir Alpay ,
  • Radenka Maric ,
  • Shuhui Sun ,
  • Xiao Dong Zhou
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  • 1. Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA;
    2. Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre Énergie Matériaux Télécommunications, Varennes, QC J3X 1P7, Canada;
    3. Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Dokuz Eylül University, 35390 Buca, Izmir, Turkey;
    4. Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA;
    5. NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH 44135, USA Materials Science and Engineering Program and Texas;
    6. Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78666, USA;
    7. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA

Received date: 2025-05-09

  Revised date: 2025-11-06

  Accepted date: 2025-12-01

  Online published: 2026-01-26

Supported by

We thank the University of Connecticut’s The Nicholas E. Madonna Foundation and Connecticut Green Bank Professorship for supporting this work. S. Yildirim appreciates the support of the TUBITAK 2219 International Post-Doc Fellowship Program.

Abstract

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) are approaching practical deployment, following breakthroughs in overcoming remaining interfacial transport barriers. A pragmatic solution has emerged: the introduction of a small quantity of liquid electrolyte to wet rough interfaces, restore contact, and open fast-ion pathways. Although such liquid additives are now widely adopted across laboratories, the evidence base remains scattered and terminology inconsistent. This review consolidates recent progress and distills design principles for integrating a fraction of liquid into nominally solid-state batteries. We classify chemistries as conventional salt-in-solvent electrolytes, ionic liquids, and gel polymer electrolytes, and map their implementation at solid electrolyte/electrode interfaces. Mechanisms are discussed through which fractional liquid additives reduce interfacial impedance, suppress void growth, and tune interphase chemistry. Improvements in electrochemical performance, including cycling stability and rate capability, are compared alongside trade-offs such as safety risks (flammability, volatility, parasitic reactions, and lithium penetration). Protocols are outlined to quantify the minimum effective additive content while retaining the intrinsic advantages of SSLBs (high-energy density and superior safety). Finally, future research directions are proposed to guide translation from bench to market, including operando mapping of liquid distribution, durability under practical areal loadings and stack pressures, and scalable delivery methods.

Cite this article

Xingwen Yu , Zizhou He , Zhangsen Chen , Serdar Yildirim , Kayla Smith , James Wu , Arumugam Manthiram , Siyi Cao , Yudong Wang , Nengneng Xu , S. Pamir Alpay , Radenka Maric , Shuhui Sun , Xiao Dong Zhou . Solid-State Lithium Batteries with Liquid Additives: A Critical Review of Progress and Challenges[J]. Electrochemical Energy Reviews, 2026 , 9(1) : 3 . DOI: 10.1007/s41918-025-00273-w

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