Table of Content

20 September 2026, Volume 9 Issue 3

Previous Issue   

Review of Particle Size Effects of Solid Electrolytes in All-Solid-State Batteries

Tianyu Lei, Linfeng Peng, Chaochao Wei, Shijie Cheng, Jia Xie

2026, 9(3):  16-16.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00288-x

Asbtract ( 11 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) represent a promising strategy to simultaneously increase the safety and energy density of conventional lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly when paired with high-capacity anodes such as lithium metal. However, the further development of ASSBs has been constrained by solid-solid contact failure, interfacial degradation, and short-circuiting caused by lithium dendrites that penetrate the solid electrolyte (SE). Despite the significant progress in material development, the impact of changes in the intrinsic structures of materials (e.g., the particle size effect of SEs) remains insufficiently understood. In this review, synthesis strategies for regulating SE particle size and the intrinsic physical and chemical properties of particles after size reduction are comprehensively summarized. Furthermore, the effects of particle size on ASSBs are critically analyzed. Key findings reveal that reduced particle size enhances mechanical properties and increases active contact areas but may exacerbate interfacial side reactions and agglomeration issues. Conversely, larger particles exhibit higher ionic conductivity but impede the densification of SEs. Moreover, the heterogeneous solid-solid interfaces and three-dimensional percolation networks arising from multiscale SE particle contacts collectively govern ASSB performance. By integrating advances in size-controlled synthesis, characterization, and modeling, this review highlights current knowledge gaps and presents strategies to better align particle engineering with interface design. This framework aims to advance high-performance ASSBs via particle size control, bridging fundamental insights with practical battery design.This review systematically summarizes strategies for modulating electrolyte particlesize, size-dependent changes in intrinsic physicochemical properties, and the sizeeffects that influence the electrochemical performance of all-solid-state batteries



Evaluating the Interfaces of High-Voltage Cathodes in Batteries

Yongxin Zhang, Yusheng Ye, Lingchen Kong, Hao Liu, Yanchen Piao, Jingmei Lyu, Xin Gao, Feng Wu, Renjie Chen

2026, 9(3):  17-17.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00286-z

Asbtract ( 5 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

The physicochemical properties of cathode-electrolyte interfaces (CEIs) play a key role in determining long-term cycling and reliable electrochemical behaviors, which are critically important in high-voltage batteries. Increasing the operating voltage improves the energy density of a battery but accelerates cathode degradation and destabilizes the CEI. Currently, the interface dynamics and working mechanism of CEIs are still under evaluation and debated. In this review, we first summarize the key CEI-related challenges and the principal structural and chemical degradation mechanisms of high-voltage cathode materials, underscoring their intrinsic inconsistencies, stochasticity, and failure modes. We then explore the intrinsic correlation between CEI degradation and electrochemical deterioration and propose targeted strategies for regulating CEIs. Furthermore, we highlight the recent advances in characterization techniques for tracking dynamic structural and compositional changes. Through this comprehensive review, we aim to deepen the understanding of CEI behavior and offer valuable insights for guiding the design and development of more reliable and sustainable next-generation high-energy batteries.This paper summarizes the key CEI challenges, principal structural, and chemical degradation mechanism, and characterization techniques of high-voltage cathode materials, underscoring their intrinsic inconsistencies, stochasticity, and failure modes.



Multiscale Strategies for Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Safety: All-Climate Adaptability and Advances in Immersion Cooling

Xiangwei Lin, Zhifu Zhou, Yubai Li, Weitao Wu, Dengwei Jing, Youjun Lu, Bin Chen, Weiyu Li

2026, 9(3):  18-18.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00291-2

Asbtract ( 8 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

Temperature variations significantly affect the performance and safety of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly under extreme conditions and high charge/discharge rates. Uneven heat generation, limited heat dissipation, and residual energy accumulation exacerbate thermal effects, leading to capacity degradation, reduced efficiency, and safety hazards. Addressing these challenges requires a multiscale understanding of the thermal behavior of LIBs. This review provides an integrated, multiscale perspective on battery thermal safety, spanning material-level design, cell-level modeling and state estimation, and system-level thermal management. We first examine the fundamental thermal mechanisms and modeling approaches governing heat generation, transport, and accumulation across varying operating conditions at the cell level. We then explore material-level strategies to mitigate low-temperature degradation and enhance high-temperature stability, enabling reliable all-climate operation. Building on these insights, we assess system-level thermal management approaches, including internal and external preheating, as well as active and passive cooling methods. Particular attention is given to immersion cooling, which offers superior heat dissipation, improved temperature uniformity, and enhanced safety. We comprehensively review immersion cooling technologies, including system configurations, fluid selection, operational parameters, and recent advances in both single-phase and two-phase cooling. By bridging physical mechanisms, modeling frameworks, and engineering solutions across scales, this review highlights key challenges, identifies critical research gaps, and outlines future directions for achieving adaptive and robust thermal safety in LIBs. The insights provided aim to support the development of safer, more reliable, and thermally resilient LIB systems for transportation and large-scale energy storage applications.



Rational Design and Multi-Scale Engineering of Iridium-Based Catalysts for Acidic Oxygen Evolution: From Atomic-Level Insights to Industrialization

Yuxin Zhang, Hongbin Zhao, Yu Gao, Muhammad Arif Khan, Zhonghong Xia, Daixin Ye, Huidong Qian, Jiujun Zhang

2026, 9(3):  19-19.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00290-3

Asbtract ( 7 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

Iridium-based catalysts remain the benchmark catalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in acidic media, a critical half-reaction in proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers (PEMWEs), yet their large-scale deployment is limited by high cost, restricted availability, and progressive degradation under severe operating conditions. This review delivers a comprehensive evaluation of advances in catalytic mechanistic understanding, structural design, and practical implementation of Ir-based electrocatalysts. In acidic electrolytes, the OER has been primarily interpreted through the adsorbate evolution mechanism (AEM) and the lattice oxygen-mediated mechanism (LOM). However, growing evidence highlights the significance of complementary pathways, including oxygen vacancy site-mediated processes, oxygen path (direct O–O radical coupling), acid–base and direct coupling pathways, coupled oxygen evolution, multi-hole (local high concentration of OH) oxygen evolution, sequential oxygen kinetics, and electrochemical-thermal mechanisms. These additional models provide more detailed insights into reaction intermediates, active-site dynamics and kinetic bottlenecks, thereby further clarifying the activity-stability trade-off. Key degradation routes including lattice dissolution, surface reconstruction, and support corrosion are reviewed, together with the structure–function relationships derived from morphology regulation, alloying, heteroatom incorporation, phase and lattice engineering, and integration with conductive supports. Representative systems ranging from elemental Ir and IrO₂ polymorphs to single-atom catalysts and perovskites are critically assessed with respect to their electronic structure, active-site configuration, and long-term durability. Industrial application aspects are also discussed in detail, encompassing the industrial-level development of PEMWE technology, regional progress toward large-scale implementation, major research organizations and enterprises, potential application domains, and recent developments in industrial devices. In addition, the accelerating role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in catalyst discovery is also discussed. Persisting challenges and research opportunities are further outlined to guide the rational design of robust, scalable, and cost-efficient Ir-based electrocatalysts for next-generation acidic water electrolysis.



Recent Progress on Electrolytes and Separators of Aqueous Zinc–Iodine Batteries: Mechanisms, Challenges and Perspectives

Dongmei Qi, Xusen Chen, Xiudong Chen, Yajiang Wang, Huixiong Jiang, Xiaoduo Jiang, Yan Huang, Jin-Hang Liu, Xiaohua Cao, Dapeng Cao

2026, 9(3):  21-21.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00294-z

Asbtract ( 8 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

Aqueous zinc-iodine batteries (AZIBs) have emerged as highly promising energy storage systems because of their inherent safety and low cost. However, conventional two-electron AZIBs (2eZIBs) are limited by their relatively low energy density (211 mAh g^-1 based on the I^-/I₂ 2e reaction), while four-electron AZIBs (4eZIBs) can potentially double the capacity to 422 mAh g^-1 but still face critical challenges, including polyiodide shuttling, I⁺ hydrolysis, and zinc dendrite growth. Here, we systematically analyze the energy storage mechanisms of AZIBs, focusing on the differences and stability issues between two-electron (I^-/I₂) and four-electron (I^-/I₂/I⁺) redox pathways. To address these challenges, this review comprehensively summarizes electrolyte optimization strategies (e.g., functional additives and gel electrolytes) and separator modification approaches for suppressing polyiodide shuttles, stabilizing I⁺ oxidation states, and optimizing zinc deposition behavior. Additionally, we evaluate the practical energy density of AZIBs and suggest future research directions, including the design of functionalized asymmetric electrolytes and the implementation of interface engineering approaches to optimize separators, thereby facilitating the practical application of AZIBs in large-scale energy storage systems.This review systematically elaborates the energy storage mechanisms and key challenges facing both the cathode and anode in AZIBs, while also providing an in-depth discussion of regulatory strategies such as electrolyte optimization and separator modification. Collectively, these insights offer theoretical guidance for the development of high energy density and long cycle life AZIB systems.



Interfacial Chemistry of Layered Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Review

Caixia Chen, Peizhao Shan, Jun Zhou, Chenpeng Xie, Yixiao Li, Zhongru Zhang, Wenhua Zuo, Yong Yang

2026, 9(3):  22-22.  doi:10.1007/s41918-026-00295-y

Asbtract ( 9 )  

Related Articles | Metrics

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) represent a compelling alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for large-scale industrialization, primarily due to their cost-effectiveness, enhanced safety profiles, and superior performance in cold climates. Within the spectrum of cathode materials, sodium-based layered transition-metal oxides (Na_xTMO₂) stand out for their high energy density and manufacturing scalability. Nevertheless, practical deployment is severely impeded by surface and interfacial instabilities triggered by environmental exposure and electrolyte interactions. This paper offers a comprehensive review of the interfacial instability mechanisms in Na_xTMO₂, encompassing their origins, evolutionary pathways, mitigation strategies, and cutting-edge characterization techniques. We begin by elucidating the fundamental thermodynamics and kinetics governing surface and interfacial behaviors, demonstrating how the coupling of bulk and interface evolution induces structural degradation and capacity decay. Subsequently, we systematically classify stabilization strategies—including bulk-phase engineering, interfacial architecture design, and electrolyte optimization—evaluating their efficacy in addressing specific failure modes. The critical roles of in situ and operando characterization in decoding interfacial evolution under coupled electrochemical, mechanical, and chemical stresses are also analyzed. Finally, we propose future research directions for interface stabilization, highlighting the imperative to translate fundamental insights into actionable design principles for SIBs and next-generation energy storage systems.